Social
The Varna class system separates society into four different groups. Varna also means color, apperence, or tribe.
Brahmin the top of the social hierarchy made up of Priests, teachers, and preachers. Below Brahmin, Kshtriya is made up of kings, governors, warriors, and soldiers. Next in line is Vaisha, made up of cattle herders, farmers, artisans, and merchants. After Vaisha is Sudra, the bottom of the social ladder is made up of labor and service personnel. |
In the beginning of the Vedic age people did not have a settled life and were nomads but with development in agriculture people started to settle down in groups. The organization was mainly tribal and the head of the tribe was supposed to be the raja or the King, though the concept of King had yet not developed. With the passage of time large kingdoms started to grow and by the 6th century BC there were 16 Mahajanapadas (Kingdoms).
There were many small republics also in ancient India. These republics had some elements of democracy in their administration. The king (raja) was the supreme head of the legislative, executive and judiciary branches. He was assisted in administration by a number of officials. The members of the council of minister could give advice to the king, but final decisions were left to the king. The ministers and other officials were directly appointed by the king.
During the Mauryan period there existed both civil and military officials. They were paid a salary in cash. The highest official was paid the salary of 48000 panas (Unit of money) per year. The soldiers were paid 500 panas per year. There were officials who maintained the records of population, income and expenditure of government. We find reference to officials and clerks who collected income tax and custom duties. Spy system was an important feature of Mauryan administration.
The royal agents and the spies could contact the king at any time and they reported to the king about various developments in his kingdom. The empire was divided into many provinces and each one of these provinces was governed by a governor and council of ministers. In the provinces there were local officials called rajukas, who became more powerful during the reign of Ashoka. There were certain departments which decided certain important matters of administration. There existed a standing army which was again controlled by certain committees.
Administration structure during the Gupta period was exceptionally good in spite of large empire. During the Gupta period also the administration was more or less like the Mauryas. The most important difference between the Gupta and Mauryan administration was centralization and decentralization of administration. In the Gupta administration, the governors of the provinces were more independent as compared to the Mauryans, where the administration was highly centralized.
There were many small republics also in ancient India. These republics had some elements of democracy in their administration. The king (raja) was the supreme head of the legislative, executive and judiciary branches. He was assisted in administration by a number of officials. The members of the council of minister could give advice to the king, but final decisions were left to the king. The ministers and other officials were directly appointed by the king.
During the Mauryan period there existed both civil and military officials. They were paid a salary in cash. The highest official was paid the salary of 48000 panas (Unit of money) per year. The soldiers were paid 500 panas per year. There were officials who maintained the records of population, income and expenditure of government. We find reference to officials and clerks who collected income tax and custom duties. Spy system was an important feature of Mauryan administration.
The royal agents and the spies could contact the king at any time and they reported to the king about various developments in his kingdom. The empire was divided into many provinces and each one of these provinces was governed by a governor and council of ministers. In the provinces there were local officials called rajukas, who became more powerful during the reign of Ashoka. There were certain departments which decided certain important matters of administration. There existed a standing army which was again controlled by certain committees.
Administration structure during the Gupta period was exceptionally good in spite of large empire. During the Gupta period also the administration was more or less like the Mauryas. The most important difference between the Gupta and Mauryan administration was centralization and decentralization of administration. In the Gupta administration, the governors of the provinces were more independent as compared to the Mauryans, where the administration was highly centralized.
Religious
Did you know that four of the world's religions come from India? The religions include Buddism, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Jainism.
An Indian leader named Prince Gautama, gave up his claim to his throne in 563 B.C. Thus the begining of Buddism. He spent lots of time under a tree meditating. Over time he then became enlightened or informed. He became the one and only Buddha. Buddha sees life as a cycle of death and rebirth. He believes that a person can only be happy when they no longer have desires. Once you don't have any desires you then reach nirvana. Nirvana is a state in which a person experiences true joy.
Hinduism is mostly practiced in India. The religion began in 1400 B.C. Hindus are polytheistic, they worship many gods. Hindus think that many of these gods are apart of Brahmen. Brahman is a supreme power that keeps the universe going. Hindus believe that each person has a soul. It is also a part of Brahman too! Hindus think that when a person dies, there spirit moves to one living thing to another. Hindus also following a strict caste or class system. People were only allowed to interact in there own caste. Thought this system is outlawed. Many people still follow it.
Jainism began as a revolt against Hinduism, started in 600 B.C. Those who follow the religion do not believe in a perfect, supreme being. They believe a person can reach a high spiritual and moral state by practicing self denial. They also believe that all creatures have souls and that any living thing is equal in importance. When someone dies there souls move from one being to another. There is a strong importance on nonviolence on all living creatures. Most Jainists are vegetarians, a diet were they do not eat meat. They are very intrigued by education. The libraries belonging to the Jains are the oldest in India.
Sikhism began in the late 1400s. The first leader was Hindu from a low caste. Though he was very poor, he still saw the spirit of God in everything in nature. His name was Guru Nanak, Guru is actually a name for a spiritual leader. When he died his spirit moved onto another guru. In 1708 the death of the tenth human guru, this spirit moved to a sacred scripture called Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhs say that their beliefs enter thief spirits though the "voice" of the eternal Guru.
An Indian leader named Prince Gautama, gave up his claim to his throne in 563 B.C. Thus the begining of Buddism. He spent lots of time under a tree meditating. Over time he then became enlightened or informed. He became the one and only Buddha. Buddha sees life as a cycle of death and rebirth. He believes that a person can only be happy when they no longer have desires. Once you don't have any desires you then reach nirvana. Nirvana is a state in which a person experiences true joy.
Hinduism is mostly practiced in India. The religion began in 1400 B.C. Hindus are polytheistic, they worship many gods. Hindus think that many of these gods are apart of Brahmen. Brahman is a supreme power that keeps the universe going. Hindus believe that each person has a soul. It is also a part of Brahman too! Hindus think that when a person dies, there spirit moves to one living thing to another. Hindus also following a strict caste or class system. People were only allowed to interact in there own caste. Thought this system is outlawed. Many people still follow it.
Jainism began as a revolt against Hinduism, started in 600 B.C. Those who follow the religion do not believe in a perfect, supreme being. They believe a person can reach a high spiritual and moral state by practicing self denial. They also believe that all creatures have souls and that any living thing is equal in importance. When someone dies there souls move from one being to another. There is a strong importance on nonviolence on all living creatures. Most Jainists are vegetarians, a diet were they do not eat meat. They are very intrigued by education. The libraries belonging to the Jains are the oldest in India.
Sikhism began in the late 1400s. The first leader was Hindu from a low caste. Though he was very poor, he still saw the spirit of God in everything in nature. His name was Guru Nanak, Guru is actually a name for a spiritual leader. When he died his spirit moved onto another guru. In 1708 the death of the tenth human guru, this spirit moved to a sacred scripture called Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhs say that their beliefs enter thief spirits though the "voice" of the eternal Guru.
Innovations
India has to its credit one of the oldest civilization in the world. There are a lot of significant contributions that India has made to the world in the field of art, science, mathematics and so on. A lot of modern day inventions are based on the principals that were created in India right from the mythological age. Take a look at the amazing ancient Indian inventions that changed the world today.
While the rest of the world was still in the pre historic age and living in the nomadic culture, India boasts to have the most advanced civilizations of the world. The cities of Mohenjo - Daro and Harappa had very advanced sense of town planning and urban landscape.
The discovery of scales suggests mathematical knowledge of the Indus people. The Indus civilization had a script of their own which means they could read and write. There were more than 600 picture letters and 60 original letters in the Indus script. The remains of a dockyard in Lothal in Gujarat testify the trade relations of Indus people with western Asia.
Sanskrit is the earliest and only known modern language. The first grammar book of Sanskrit written by Panini in 400BC called Astadhyayi. In this book the author describes rules of Sanskrit grammar.
Sushruta is called the father of surgery who conducted complicated surgeries. He compiled his findings in the book Sushrutasamitha.
The first notions of zero as a number and its uses have been found in Mathematical treatise of ancient India. Brahmagupta gave a full account of the Hindu numerals with its digits 0,1,2,3,...,9 and decimal. Algorithm is an invention of ancient India. It ultimately became the scheme of numeration by making use of the Indian numerals.
Aryabhata, (c. 500AD) was the earliest person known to have done precise celestial calculations. He accurately calculated celestial constants like earth's rotation per solar orbit, days per solar orbit, days per lunar orbit. He talked of the diurnal motion of the earth and the appearance of the Sun going round it as early as the sixth century.
One of the major ancient Indian inventions is Chess. Chess was invented in ancient India and was known as Ashtapada. Ashtāpada was the board game which predates chess. It was mentioned on the list of games that Gautama Buddha would not play. Around the 6th century during the Gupta period it was called Chaturanga.
Iron works were developed in the Vedic period. Archaeological sites show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE and 1200 BCE. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered. In the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion.
While the rest of the world was still in the pre historic age and living in the nomadic culture, India boasts to have the most advanced civilizations of the world. The cities of Mohenjo - Daro and Harappa had very advanced sense of town planning and urban landscape.
The discovery of scales suggests mathematical knowledge of the Indus people. The Indus civilization had a script of their own which means they could read and write. There were more than 600 picture letters and 60 original letters in the Indus script. The remains of a dockyard in Lothal in Gujarat testify the trade relations of Indus people with western Asia.
Sanskrit is the earliest and only known modern language. The first grammar book of Sanskrit written by Panini in 400BC called Astadhyayi. In this book the author describes rules of Sanskrit grammar.
Sushruta is called the father of surgery who conducted complicated surgeries. He compiled his findings in the book Sushrutasamitha.
The first notions of zero as a number and its uses have been found in Mathematical treatise of ancient India. Brahmagupta gave a full account of the Hindu numerals with its digits 0,1,2,3,...,9 and decimal. Algorithm is an invention of ancient India. It ultimately became the scheme of numeration by making use of the Indian numerals.
Aryabhata, (c. 500AD) was the earliest person known to have done precise celestial calculations. He accurately calculated celestial constants like earth's rotation per solar orbit, days per solar orbit, days per lunar orbit. He talked of the diurnal motion of the earth and the appearance of the Sun going round it as early as the sixth century.
One of the major ancient Indian inventions is Chess. Chess was invented in ancient India and was known as Ashtapada. Ashtāpada was the board game which predates chess. It was mentioned on the list of games that Gautama Buddha would not play. Around the 6th century during the Gupta period it was called Chaturanga.
Iron works were developed in the Vedic period. Archaeological sites show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE and 1200 BCE. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered. In the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion.
India is a peninsula, a piece of land surrounded on three sides by water. It has the Arabian Sea on the west, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean on the south. India is also separated from the rest of Asia by the Himalaya Mountains to the north and northwest. The Himalayas have some of the tallest mountains in the world.
Indian geography is very diverse. It has deserts, mountains, forests, and jungles.
The life of ancient India was probably greatly affected by the weather. India tends to be a very hot and dry country. But, in May, the monsoon season hits. Monsoons are times of very heavy rainfall. The rain in India can last for several weeks or a month, and can cause heavy flooding. The rain is a good thing, though, as it waters the fields that have been dry for so long. In years when the monsoons do not come, India suffers from drought.
The ancient Indians settled in areas near the rivers, or where there was access to water. Western India (now the country of Pakistan) had the Indus River, and eastern India had the Ganges River. The northern area had the Himalaya Mountains. Melting snow coming off the mountains supplied water to this area. Eastern India often gets another monsoon in September that helps water the fields, in addition to the one in May.
Indian geography is very diverse. It has deserts, mountains, forests, and jungles.
The life of ancient India was probably greatly affected by the weather. India tends to be a very hot and dry country. But, in May, the monsoon season hits. Monsoons are times of very heavy rainfall. The rain in India can last for several weeks or a month, and can cause heavy flooding. The rain is a good thing, though, as it waters the fields that have been dry for so long. In years when the monsoons do not come, India suffers from drought.
The ancient Indians settled in areas near the rivers, or where there was access to water. Western India (now the country of Pakistan) had the Indus River, and eastern India had the Ganges River. The northern area had the Himalaya Mountains. Melting snow coming off the mountains supplied water to this area. Eastern India often gets another monsoon in September that helps water the fields, in addition to the one in May.
Technology
Technology means the application of scientific knowledge for practical purpose. It can also refer to machinery and equipment developed from such knowledge.
In ancient India there is a large number of evidence to suggest the prevalence of scientific and technological knowledge. Many of them were linked with the religious belief system prevalent at that point of time.
Among the various branches of mathematics, Hindus gave highest importance to astronomy. Astronomy was studied as a Vedanta and was called Jyotisa. During Vedic period a primitive kind of astronomy was in vogue mainly for the purpose of settling the dates and times at which periodical sacrifices were to be performed.
Suryasidhanta is the best know book on Hindu astronomy. The text was later modified two or three times between 500 A.D. and 1500 A.D. The system laid down in the book is used to predict eclipse even now.
The most renowned scholars of astronomy were Aryabhata and Varhamihira. Aryabhata belonged to the fifth century and Varahamihira to the sixth. Aryabhata wrote the book Aryabhatiya when he was barely 23 years. He calculated the position of the planets according to the Babylonian method. He discovered the cause of lunar and solar eclipses. He measured the circumference of the earth. He pointed out that the sun is stationary and the earth rotates around it.
Varhimihira who lived in the sixth century A.D wrote Brihat Samhita another well-known work on astronomy. Varhaihira stated that the moon rotates around the earth and the earth rotates around the sun. He utilized several Greek works to explain the movement of the planets and some other astronomical problems. Varhmihira wrote a summary of five astronomical books current in his time. He called one of his five astronomical systems as Romaka Sidhanta.
Brahmagupta Brahamagupta in his book Brahmasphuta - Siddhantas appreciated the value of observation and astronomy and his book was translated into Arabic. One last outstanding mathematician in India was Bhaskarachary who was born in modern Karnataka. He wrote the book Siddhanta Siromani, a treatise on astronomy. This four-part text book was written in 1150 AD when Bhaskara was 36 years old. The work is composed in Sanskrit and has 1450 verses.
The people in ancient India had considerable knowledge of Medicine. In the field of medicine, Ayurveda is the most significant contribution of ancient India. Seven hundred hymns in Atharva Veda refer to the topics of Ayurveda. The Vedic hymns attribute various diseases to demons and spirits and the remedies for hymns prescribing correctly the symptoms of several diseases.
The importance of medicine gained currency from 800 B.C. Medicine became a regular subject of study at centers like Taxila and Varanasi. The latter specialized in surgery. The physician was a respectable member of society and the Vaidyas mostly Brahmins were ranked higher in the social hierarchy.
India witnessed two famous scholars Charaka and Susrtua who made considerable contribution to the field of Ayurveda system of medicine. Charaka in the second century A.D compiled the teachings of two of his predecessors who served at Taxila and called it Charakasamhita. Charakasamhita is considered to be the encyclopaedia of Indian medicines. It describes various types of fever, leprosy, hysteria and tuberculosis.
For its treatment Charaka lays special emphasis on cleanliness and on diet. His book contains the names of a large number of plants and herbs which were used as medicine. Charakasamhita is useful not only for study of ancient Indian medicine but also for ancient Indian flora and chemistry. In subsequent centuries Indian medicines developed on the lines laid down by Charakasamhita.
The knowledge of Physics was closely linked with religion that recognized many types of atoms and elements. In later period, some Buddhists school of thought conceived atom as the minutes object capable of occupying space in fastest duration of time, coming into being and vanishing, almost in an instant, only to be succeeded by another atom caused by the first.
The Vaisesika School believed a single atom to be a point in space completely without magnitude. Further, most of the schools believed that atoms constitute molecules.
A great deal of progress was made in ancient India in the field of chemistry and metallurgy. The Harappans developed metallurgy of copper and bronze about 2500 B.C. The Vedic Aryans tanned leather, fermented grains and fruits, and dyed scale production of copper, iron and steel, brass, silver and gold and their alloys. Indian steel was highly esteemed and was exported in large quantities.
It was from the seventh century, alchemy the forerunner of chemistry was referred to in Indian literature. The applied chemistry of ancient India did succeed in producing many important alkalis, acids and metallic salts. It is claimed by historian A. L. Basham that a form of gun powder was discovered in ancient India.
The greater heights of knowledge of metallurgy and engineering in ancient India are borne by the discovery of pure copper statue of Buddha at Sultanganj. The famous iron Pillar at the Qutab complex in New Delhi also is a testimony to this fact.
In ancient India there is a large number of evidence to suggest the prevalence of scientific and technological knowledge. Many of them were linked with the religious belief system prevalent at that point of time.
Among the various branches of mathematics, Hindus gave highest importance to astronomy. Astronomy was studied as a Vedanta and was called Jyotisa. During Vedic period a primitive kind of astronomy was in vogue mainly for the purpose of settling the dates and times at which periodical sacrifices were to be performed.
Suryasidhanta is the best know book on Hindu astronomy. The text was later modified two or three times between 500 A.D. and 1500 A.D. The system laid down in the book is used to predict eclipse even now.
The most renowned scholars of astronomy were Aryabhata and Varhamihira. Aryabhata belonged to the fifth century and Varahamihira to the sixth. Aryabhata wrote the book Aryabhatiya when he was barely 23 years. He calculated the position of the planets according to the Babylonian method. He discovered the cause of lunar and solar eclipses. He measured the circumference of the earth. He pointed out that the sun is stationary and the earth rotates around it.
Varhimihira who lived in the sixth century A.D wrote Brihat Samhita another well-known work on astronomy. Varhaihira stated that the moon rotates around the earth and the earth rotates around the sun. He utilized several Greek works to explain the movement of the planets and some other astronomical problems. Varhmihira wrote a summary of five astronomical books current in his time. He called one of his five astronomical systems as Romaka Sidhanta.
Brahmagupta Brahamagupta in his book Brahmasphuta - Siddhantas appreciated the value of observation and astronomy and his book was translated into Arabic. One last outstanding mathematician in India was Bhaskarachary who was born in modern Karnataka. He wrote the book Siddhanta Siromani, a treatise on astronomy. This four-part text book was written in 1150 AD when Bhaskara was 36 years old. The work is composed in Sanskrit and has 1450 verses.
The people in ancient India had considerable knowledge of Medicine. In the field of medicine, Ayurveda is the most significant contribution of ancient India. Seven hundred hymns in Atharva Veda refer to the topics of Ayurveda. The Vedic hymns attribute various diseases to demons and spirits and the remedies for hymns prescribing correctly the symptoms of several diseases.
The importance of medicine gained currency from 800 B.C. Medicine became a regular subject of study at centers like Taxila and Varanasi. The latter specialized in surgery. The physician was a respectable member of society and the Vaidyas mostly Brahmins were ranked higher in the social hierarchy.
India witnessed two famous scholars Charaka and Susrtua who made considerable contribution to the field of Ayurveda system of medicine. Charaka in the second century A.D compiled the teachings of two of his predecessors who served at Taxila and called it Charakasamhita. Charakasamhita is considered to be the encyclopaedia of Indian medicines. It describes various types of fever, leprosy, hysteria and tuberculosis.
For its treatment Charaka lays special emphasis on cleanliness and on diet. His book contains the names of a large number of plants and herbs which were used as medicine. Charakasamhita is useful not only for study of ancient Indian medicine but also for ancient Indian flora and chemistry. In subsequent centuries Indian medicines developed on the lines laid down by Charakasamhita.
The knowledge of Physics was closely linked with religion that recognized many types of atoms and elements. In later period, some Buddhists school of thought conceived atom as the minutes object capable of occupying space in fastest duration of time, coming into being and vanishing, almost in an instant, only to be succeeded by another atom caused by the first.
The Vaisesika School believed a single atom to be a point in space completely without magnitude. Further, most of the schools believed that atoms constitute molecules.
A great deal of progress was made in ancient India in the field of chemistry and metallurgy. The Harappans developed metallurgy of copper and bronze about 2500 B.C. The Vedic Aryans tanned leather, fermented grains and fruits, and dyed scale production of copper, iron and steel, brass, silver and gold and their alloys. Indian steel was highly esteemed and was exported in large quantities.
It was from the seventh century, alchemy the forerunner of chemistry was referred to in Indian literature. The applied chemistry of ancient India did succeed in producing many important alkalis, acids and metallic salts. It is claimed by historian A. L. Basham that a form of gun powder was discovered in ancient India.
The greater heights of knowledge of metallurgy and engineering in ancient India are borne by the discovery of pure copper statue of Buddha at Sultanganj. The famous iron Pillar at the Qutab complex in New Delhi also is a testimony to this fact.
Sources
http://www.culturalindia.net/indian-history/ancient-india/ancient-government.html
http://www.thisismyindia.com/ancient_india/achievement-of-ancient-india.html
http://www.thisismyindia.com/ancient_india/ancient-india-technology.html
http://www.historyforkids.net/ancient-indian-environment.html
http://www.thisismyindia.com/ancient_india/achievement-of-ancient-india.html
http://www.thisismyindia.com/ancient_india/ancient-india-technology.html
http://www.historyforkids.net/ancient-indian-environment.html
Photo Links
http://www.indianetzone.com/5/caste_system_india.htm
http://www.tikkun.org/nextgen/to-uphold-the-world-what-two-statesmen-from-ancient-india-can-tell-us-about-our-current-crisis
http://www.crystalinks.com/indiareligion.html
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/KMcClain/ancient-india-14293279
http://www.thisismyindia.com/ancient_india/ancient-india-technology.html
http://quatr.us/india/environment/
http://www.tikkun.org/nextgen/to-uphold-the-world-what-two-statesmen-from-ancient-india-can-tell-us-about-our-current-crisis
http://www.crystalinks.com/indiareligion.html
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/KMcClain/ancient-india-14293279
http://www.thisismyindia.com/ancient_india/ancient-india-technology.html
http://quatr.us/india/environment/